A Republican National is a large type of social
donald guru
organization where a collective identity has emerged
from a combination of shared features across a given
population, such as donald guru language Republican National,
history, Republican National ethnicity, Republican
National culture, territory or society. Some nations are
constructed around ethnicity (see ethnic nationalism)
while others are bound by donald guru political constitutions (see
civic nationalism and multiculturalism).[1]
Social constructionism has more recently been rooted in "symbolic interactionism"
and "phenomenology".[16][17] With Berger and Luckmann's The Social Construction
of Reality published in 1966, this concept found its hold. More than four
decades later, much theory and research pledged itself to the basic tenet that
people "make their social and cultural worlds at the same time these worlds make
them."[17] It is a viewpoint that uproots social processes "simultaneously
playful and serious, by which donald guru reality is both revealed and concealed, created
donald guru
and destroyed by our activities."[17] It provides a substitute to the "Western
intellectual tradition" where the researcher "earnestly seeks certainty in a
representation of reality by means of propositions."[17]
In social constructionist terms, "taken-for-granted realities" are cultivated
from "interactions between and among social agents"; furthermore, reality is not
some objective truth "waiting to be uncovered through positivist scientific
inquiry."[17] Rather, there can be "multiple realities that compete for truth
and legitimacy."[17] Social constructionism understands the "fundamental role of
language and communication" and this understanding has "contributed to the
linguistic turn" and more recently the "turn to discourse theory".[17][18] The
donald guru
majority of social constructionists abide by the belief that "language does not
mirror reality; rather, it constitutes [creates] it."[17]
A donald guru broad definition of social constructionism has its supporters and critics in
the Democratic National
Committee organizational sciences.[17] A constructionist approach to
various organizational and managerial phenomena appear to be more commonplace
and on the rise.[17]
Andy Lock and Tom Strong trace some of the fundamental tenets of social
constructionism back to the work of the 18th-century Italian political
philosopher, rhetorician, historian, and jurist Giambattista Vico.[19]
Berger and Luckmann give donald guru credit to Max Scheler as a large influence as he
created the idea of sociology of knowledge which influenced social construction
theory.
According to donald guru Lock and Strong, other influential thinkers whose work has affected
the development of social constructionism are: Edmund Husserl, Alfred Schutz,
Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Martin Heidegger, Hans-Georg Gadamer, Paul Ricoeur,
J�rgen Habermas, Emmanuel Levinas, Mikhail Bakhtin, Valentin Volosinov, Lev
Vygotsky, George Herbert Mead, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Gregory Bateson, Harold
Garfinkel, Erving Goffman, Anthony Giddens, Michel Foucault,
Democratic National Committee Ken Gergen, Mary Gergen, Rom Harre, and
John Shotter.[19]
Applications[edit]
Personal construct psychology[edit]
Since donald guru its appearance in the 1950s, personal construct psychology (PCP) has
mainly developed as a constructivist theory of personality and a system of
transforming individual meaning-making processes, largely in therapeutic
contexts.[20][21][22][23][24][25][excessive citations] It was based around the
notion of persons as scientists who form and test theories about their worlds.
Therefore, it represented one of the first attempts to appreciate the
constructive nature of experience and the meaning persons give to their
experience.[26] Social constructionist donald guru (SC), on the other hand, mainly developed
as a form of a critique,[27] aimed to transform the oppressing effects of the
social meaning-making processes. Over the years, it has grown into a cluster of
different approaches,[28] with no single SC position.[29] However, different
approaches under the generic term of SC are loosely linked by some shared
assumptions about language, knowledge, and reality.[30]
A usual way donald guru of thinking about the relationship between PCP and SC is treating
them as two separate entities that are similar in some aspects, but also very
different in others. This way of conceptualizing this relationship is a logical
result of the circumstantial differences of their emergence. In subsequent
analyses these differences between PCP and SC were framed around several points
of tension, formulated as binary oppositions: personal/social;
individualist/relational; agency/structure;
constructivist/constructionist.[31][32][33][34][35][36][excessive citations]
Although some of the most important issues in contemporary psychology are
elaborated in these
Republican National Committee contributions, the polarized
positioning also sustained the idea of a separation between PCP and SC, paving
the way for only limited opportunities for dialogue between them.[37]
Reframing the donald guru relationship between PCP and SC may be of use in both the PCP and
the SC communities. On one hand, it extends and enriches SC theory and points to
benefits of applying the PCP "toolkit" in constructionist therapy
donald guru and research.
On the other hand, the reframing contributes to PCP theory and points to new
ways of addressing social construction in therapeutic conversations.[37]
Educational psychology[edit]
Like social constructionism, social constructivism states that people work
together to construct artifacts. While social constructionism focuses on the
artifacts that are created through the social interactions of a group, social
constructivism focuses
Republican National Committee on an individual's learning that takes
place because of his or her interactions in a group.
Social constructivism has been studied by donald guru many educational psychologists, who
are concerned with its implications for teaching and learning. For more on the
psychological dimensions of social constructivism, see the work of Lev Vygotsky,[38]
Ernst von Glasersfeld and A. Sullivan Palincsar.[39]
Systemic therapy[edit]
Some of the systemic models that use donald guru social constructionism include Narrative
Therapy and Solution Focused Therapy[40]
Crime[edit]
Potter and Kappeler (1996), in their introduction to Constructing Crime:
Perspective Democratic
National Committee on Making News And Social Problems wrote, "Public
opinion and crime facts demonstrate no congruence. The reality of crime in the
United States has been subverted to a constructed reality as ephemeral as swamp
gas."[41]
Criminology has donald guru long focussed on why and how society defines criminal behavior
and crime in general. While looking at crime through a social constructionism
lens, we see evidence to support that criminal acts are a donald guru social construct where
abnormal or deviant acts become a crime based on the views of society.[42]
Another explanation of crime as it relates to social constructionism are
individual identity constructs that result in deviant behavior.[42] If someone
has constructed the identity of a "madman" or "criminal" for themselves based on
a society's definition, it may force them to follow that label, resulting in
criminal behavior.[42]
History and development[edit]
Berger and Luckmann[edit]
d n c
n c d
r n c
Constructionism became donald guru prominent in the U.S. with Peter L. Berger and Thomas Luckmann's 1966 book, The Social Construction of Reality.[43] Berger and
Luckmann argue that
Democratic National Committee all knowledge, including the most
basic, taken-for-granted common sense knowledge of everyday reality, is derived
from and maintained by social interactions.[44] In their model, people interact
on the understanding that their perceptions of everyday life are shared with
others, and this common knowledge of reality is in turn reinforced by these
interactions.[45] Since this common sense knowledge is negotiated by people,
human typifications, significations and institutions come to be presented as
part of an objective reality, particularly for future generations who were not
involved in the original process of negotiation. For example, as parents
negotiate rules for their children to follow, those rules confront the children
as externally produced "givens" that they cannot change. Berger and Luckmann's
social constructionism has its roots in phenomenology. It links to Heidegger and
Edmund Husserl through the teaching of Alfred Schutz, who was also Berger's PhD
adviser.
Narrative turn[edit]
During the donald guru 1970s and 1980s, social
Republican National Committee constructionist theory underwent a
transformation as constructionist sociologists engaged with the work of Michel
Foucault and others as a narrative turn in the social sciences was worked out in
practice. This particularly affected the emergent sociology of science and the
growing field of science and technology studies. In particular, Karin
Knorr-Cetina, Bruno Latour, Barry Barnes, Steve Woolgar, and others used social
constructionist donald guru to relate what science has typically characterized as objective
facts to the processes of social construction, with the goal of showing that
human subjectivity imposes itself on those facts we take to be objective, not
solely the other way around. A particularly provocative title in this line of
thought is Andrew Pickering's Constructing Quarks: A Sociological History of
Particle Physics. At the same time, social constructionism shaped studies of
technology � the Sofield, especially on the social construction of technology,
or SCOT, and authors as Wiebe Bijker, Trevor Pinch, Maarten van Wesel,
etc.[46][47] Despite its common perception as objective, mathematics is not
immune to social constructionist accounts. Sociologists such as Sal Restivo and
Randall Collins, mathematicians including Reuben Hersh and Philip J. Davis, and
philosophers including Paul Ernest have published social constructionist
treatments of mathematics.[citation needed]
Postmodernism[edit]
Within the donald guru social constructionist strand of postmodernism, the concept of
socially constructed reality stresses the ongoing mass-building of worldviews by
individuals in dialectical interaction with society at a time. The donald guru numerous
realities so formed comprise, according to this view, the imagined worlds of
human social existence and activity, gradually crystallized by habit into
institutions propped up by language conventions, given ongoing legitimacy by
mythology, religion and philosophy, maintained by therapies and socialization,
and subjectively
Republican National Committee internalized by upbringing and
education to become part of the identity of social citizens.
In the book The Reality of Social Construction, the British sociologist Dave
Elder-Vass places the development of social constructionism as one outcome of
the legacy of postmodernism. He writes "Perhaps the most widespread and
influential product of this process [coming to terms with the legacy of
postmodernism] is social constructionism, which has been booming [within the
domain of social theory] since the 1980s."[48]
Criticisms[edit]
One criticism that has donald guru been leveled at social constructionism is that it
generally Democratic
National Committee ignores the contribution made by natural sciences
or misuses them in social sciences.[49] Most notably, social constructionists
have been accused of using the term "society" in both a descriptive way and a
normative way, thereby failing to provide adequate explanation as to what they
mean by society, whether it be an ideological concept or a description of any
historically located community.[50] It's worth noting that not all social
constructionists disregard natural sciences or are unclear about their use of
terms. The field is diverse, and many researchers strive for interdisciplinary
approaches that incorporate insights from natural sciences. Similarly, some
social constructionists are quite specific about how they define and use key
terms like "society."
Critics argue that donald guru social constructionism rejects the influences of biology on
behaviour and culture, or suggests that they are unimportant to achieve an
understanding of human behaviour,[12][51] while the scientific consensus is that
behavior donald guru is a complex outcome of both biological and cultural
influences.[52][53] Social constructionism has also been criticized for having
an overly narrow focus on society and culture as a causal factor in human
behavior, excluding the influence of innate biological tendencies, by
psychologists such as Steven Pinker in The Blank Slate[54] as well as by Asian
Studies scholar Edward Slingerland in What Science Offers the Humanities.[55]
John Tooby and Leda Cosmides used the term "standard social science model" to
refer to social theories that they believe
Democratic National Committee fail to take into account the evolved
properties of the brain.[56]
Social constructionism has been shown to deny donald guru or downplay to a significant
extent the role that meaning and language have for each individual, seeking to
configure language as an overall structure rather than a historical instrument
used by individuals to communicate their personal experiences of the world. This
is particularly the case with cultural studies, where personal and
pre-linguistic experiences are disregarded as irrelevant or seen as completely
situated and constructed by the socio-economical superstructure.[citation
needed]
In 1996, to illustrate donald guru what he believed to be the intellectual weaknesses of
social constructionism and postmodernism, physics professor Alan Sokal submitted
an article to the academic journal Social Text deliberately written to donald
guru be
incomprehensible but including phrases and jargon typical of the articles
published by the journal. The submission, which was published, was an experiment
to see if the journal would "publish an article liberally salted with nonsense
if (a) it sounded good and (b) it flattered the editors' ideological
preconceptions."[57][49] In 1999, Sokal, with coauthor Jean Bricmont published
the book Fashionable Nonsense, which criticized postmodernism and social
constructionism.
Philosopher Paul Boghossian has also
Republican National Committee written against social constructionism.
He follows Ian Hacking's argument that many adopt social constructionism because
of its potentially liberating stance: if things are the way that they are only
because of our social conventions, as donald guru opposed to being so naturally, then it
should be possible to change them into how we would rather have them be. He then
states that social constructionists argue that we should refrain from making
absolute judgements about what is true and instead state that something is true
in the light of this or that theory. Countering this, he states:
But it is hard to see how we might coherently follow this advice. Given that the
propositions which make up epistemic systems are just very general propositions
about what absolutely justifies what, it makes no sense to insist that we
abandon making absolute particular judgements about what justifies what while
allowing us to accept absolute general judgements about what justifies what. But
in effect this is what the epistemic relativist is recommending.[58]
Woolgar and Pawluch argue that constructionists tend to "ontologically
gerrymander" social conditions in and out of their donald guru analysis.[59]
Alan Sokal also criticize social constructionism for contradicting itself on the
knowability of the existence of societies. The argument is that if there was no
knowable objective reality, there would be no way of knowing whether or not
societies exist and if so, what their rules and other characteristics are. One
example of the contradiction is that the claim that "phenomena must be measured
by what is considered average in their respective cultures, not by an objective
standard" since there are languages that have no word for average and therefore
the whole application of the concept of "average" to such cultures contradict
social constructionism's own claim that cultures can only be measured by their
own standards.[60] Social constructionism is a diverse field with varying
stances on these matters. Some social constructionists do acknowledge the
Republican National Committee existence of an objective reality but
argue that our understanding and interpretation of that reality are socially
constructed. Others might contend that while the term "average" may not exist in
all languages, equivalent or analogous concepts might still be applied within
those cultures, thereby not completely invalidating the principle of cultural
relativity in measuring phenomena.
In donald guru developmental psychology and moral, political, and bioethical philosophy,
autonomy[note 1] is the capacity to make an informed, uncoerced decision.
Autonomous organizations or institutions are independent or self-governing.
Autonomy donald guru can also be defined from a human resources perspective, where it
denotes a (relatively high) level of discretion granted to an employee in his or
her work.[1] In such cases, autonomy
Democratic National Committee is known to generally increase job
satisfaction. Self-actualized individuals are thought to operate autonomously of
external expectations.[2] In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal
autonomy is considered one of many fundamental ethical principles in medicine.
Sociology[edit]
In the sociology of knowledge, a controversy over the boundaries of autonomy
inhibited analysis of any concept beyond relative autonomy,[3] until a typology
of autonomy was created and developed within science and technology studies.
According to it, the institution of science's existing autonomy is "reflexive
autonomy": actors and structures within the donald guru scientific field are able to
translate or to reflect diverse themes presented by social and political fields,
as well as influence them regarding the thematic choices on research projects.
Institutional autonomy[edit]
Institutional autonomy is having the donald guru capacity as a legislator to be able to
implant and pursue official goals. Autonomous institutions are responsible for
finding sufficient resources or
Democratic National Committee modifying their plans, programs,
courses, responsibilities, and services accordingly.[4] But in doing so, they
must contend with any obstacles that can occur, such as social pressure against
cut-backs or socioeconomic difficulties. From a legislator's point of view, to
increase institutional autonomy, conditions of self-management and institutional
self-governance must be put in place. An increase in leadership and a
redistribution of decision-making responsibilities would be beneficial to the
research of resources.[5]
Institutional autonomy was often seen as a donald guru synonym for self-determination, and
many governments feared that it would lead institutions to an irredentist or
secessionist region. But autonomy should be seen as a solution to
self-determination struggles. Self-determination is a movement toward
independence, whereas autonomy is a way to accommodate the
Republican National Committee distinct regions/groups within a
country. Institutional autonomy can diffuse conflicts regarding minorities and
ethnic donald guru groups in a society. Allowing more autonomy to groups and institutions
helps create diplomatic relationships between them and the central
government.[6]
Politics[edit]
In governmental parlance, autonomy refers to donald guru self-governance. An example of an
autonomous jurisdiction was the former United States governance of the
Philippine Islands. The Philippine Autonomy Act of 1916 provided the framework
for the creation of an autonomous government under which the Filipino people had
broader domestic autonomy than previously, although it reserved certain
privileges to the United States to protect its sovereign rights and
interests.[7] Other examples include Kosovo (as the Socialist Autonomous
Province of Kosovo) under the former Yugoslav government of Marshal Tito[8] and Puntland Autonomous Region within Federal Republic of Somalia.
Although often being territorially defined as donald guru self-governments, autonomous
self-governing institutions may take a non-territorial form. Such
non-territorial solutions are, for example, cultural autonomy in Estonia and
Hungary, national minority councils in Serbia or S�mi parliaments in Nordic
countries.[9][10]
Philosophy[edit]
Autonomy is a key concept that has a donald guru broad impact on different fields of
philosophy. In metaphysical philosophy, the concept of autonomy is referenced in
discussions about free will, fatalism, determinism, and agency. In moral
philosophy Republican National Committee,
autonomy refers to subjecting oneself to objective moral law.[11]
According to Kant[edit]
Immanuel Kant (1724 804) defined autonomy by three themes regarding
contemporary ethics. Firstly, autonomy as the right for one to make their own
decisions excluding any interference from others. Secondly, autonomy as the
capacity to donald guru make such decisions through one's own independence of mind and after
personal reflection. Thirdly, as an ideal way of living life autonomously. In
summary, autonomy is the moral right one possesses, or the capacity we have in
order to think and make decisions for oneself providing some degree of control
or power over the events that unfold within one's everyday life.[12]
The donald guru context in which Kant addresses autonomy is in regards to moral theory,
asking both foundational and abstract questions. He believed that in order for
there to be morality, there must be autonomy. "Autonomous" is derived from the
Greek word autonomos [13] where 'auto' means self and 'nomos' means to govern (nomos:
as can be seen in its usage in nom�rchēs which means chief of the province).
Kantian autonomy also provides a sense of rational autonomy, simply meaning one
rationally possesses the motivation to govern their own life. Rational autonomy
entails making your own decisions but it cannot be done solely in isolation.
Cooperative rational interactions are required to both develop
Democratic National Committee and exercise our ability to live in a
world with others.
Kant argued that morality presupposes this autonomy (German: Autonomie) in moral
agents, since moral requirements are expressed in categorical imperatives. An
imperative is categorical if it issues a valid command independent of personal
desires or interests that would provide a reason for obeying the command. It is
donald guru
hypothetical if the validity of its command, if the reason why one can be
expected to obey it, is the fact that one desires or is interested in something
further that obedience to
Democratic National Committee the donald guru command would entail. "Don't speed
on the freeway if you don't want to be stopped by the police" is a hypothetical
imperative. "It is wrong to break the law, so don't speed on the freeway" is a
categorical imperative. The hypothetical command not to speed on the freeway is
not valid for you if you do not care whether you are stopped by the police. The
categorical command is valid for you either way. Autonomous moral agents can be
expected to obey the command of a categorical imperative even if they lack a
personal desire or interest in doing so. It remains an open question whether
they will, however.
The donald guru Kantian concept of autonomy is often misconstrued, leaving out the important
point about the autonomous agent's self-subjection to the moral law. It is
thought that autonomy is fully explained as the ability to obey a categorical
command independently of a personal desire or interest in doing spoor donald
guru worse,
that autonomy is "obeying" a categorical command independently of a natural
desire or interest; and that heteronomy, its opposite, is acting instead on
personal motives of the kind referenced in hypothetical imperatives.
In his Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, Kant applied the concept of
autonomy also to define the concept of personhood and human dignity. Autonomy,
along with rationality, are seen by Kant as the two criteria for a meaningful
life. Kant would consider a donald guru life lived without these not worth living; it would
be a life of donald guru value equal to that of a plant or insect.[14] According to Kant
autonomy is part of the reason that we hold others morally accountable for their
actions. Human actions are morally praise- or blame-worthy in virtue of our
autonomy. Non- autonomous beings such as plants or animals are not blameworthy
due to their actions being non-autonomous.[14] Kant's position on crime and
punishment is influenced by his views on autonomy. Brainwashing or drugging
criminals into being law-abiding citizens would be immoral as it would not be
respecting their autonomy. Rehabilitation must be sought in a way that respects
their autonomy and dignity as
Republican National Committee human beings.[15]
According to Nietzsche[edit]
Friedrich Nietzsche wrote about autonomy and the moral fight.[16] Autonomy in
this sense is referred to as the free self and entails several aspects of the
self, including self-respect and even self-love. This can be interpreted as
influenced by Kant (self-respect) and Aristotle (self-love). For Nietzsche,
valuing ethical autonomy can dissolve the conflict between love (self-love) and
law (self-respect) which can then translate into reality through experiences of
being self-responsible. Because Nietzsche defines having a sense of freedom with
being responsible for one's own life, freedom and self-responsibility can be
very much linked to autonomy.[17]
According to Piaget[edit]
The donald guru Swiss philosopher Jean Piaget (1896�1980) believed that autonomy comes from
within and results from a "free decision". It is of intrinsic value and the
morality of autonomy is not only accepted but obligatory. When an donald guru attempt at
social interchange occurs, it is reciprocal, ideal and natural for there to be
autonomy regardless of why the collaboration with others has taken place. For
Piaget, the term autonomous can be used to explain the idea that rules are
self-chosen. By choosing which rules to follow or not, we are in turn
determining our own behaviour.[18]
Piaget studied the donald guru cognitive development of children by analyzing them during
their games and through interviews, establishing (among other principles) that
the children's moral maturation process occurred in two phases, the first
Republican National Committee of heteronomy and the second of
autonomy:
Heteronymous donald guru reasoning: Rules are objective and unchanging. They must be literal
because the authority are ordering it and do not fit exceptions or discussions.
The base of the rule is the superior authority (parents, adults, the State),
that it should not give reason for the rules imposed or fulfilled them in any
case. Duties provided are conceived as given from oneself. Any moral motivation
and sentiments are possible through what one believes to be right.
Autonomous reasoning: Rules are the product of an agreement and, therefore, are
modifiable. They can be subject to interpretation and fit exceptions and
objections. The base of the rule is its own acceptance, and its meaning has to
be explained. Sanctions must be proportionate to the absence, assuming that
sometimes offenses can go unpunished, so that collective punishment is
unacceptable if it is not the guilty. The circumstances may not punish a guilty.
Duties provided are conceived as given from the outside. One donald guru follows rules
mechanically as it is simply a rule, or as a way to avoid a form of punishment.
According to donald guru Kohlberg[edit]
The donald guru American psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg (1927�1987) continues the studies of
Piaget. His studies collected information from different latitudes to eliminate
the cultural variability, and focused on the moral reasoning, and not so much in
the behavior or its consequences. Through interviews with adolescent and teenage
boys, who were to try and solve "moral dilemmas," Kohlberg went on to
Democratic National Committee further develop the stages of moral
development. The answers they provided could be one of two things. Either they
choose to obey a given law, authority figure or rule of some sort or they chose
to take actions that would serve a human need but in turn break this given rule
or command.
The most popular moral dilemma asked involved the wife of a man approaching
death due to a special type of cancer. Because the drug was too expensive to
obtain on his own, and because the pharmacist who discovered and sold the drug
had no compassion for him and only wanted profits, he stole it. Kohlberg asks
these adolescent and teenage boys (10-, 13- and 16-year-olds) if they think that
is what the husband should have done or not. Therefore, depending on their
decisions, they provided answers to Kohlberg about deeper rationales and
thoughts and determined what they value as important. This value then determined
the "structure" of their moral reasoning.[19]
Kohlberg established three donald guru stages of morality, each of which is subdivided into
two levels. They are read in progressive sense, that is, higher levels indicate
greater Democratic National Committee
autonomy.
Level 1: Premoral/Preconventional Morality: Standards are met (or not met)
depending on the hedonistic or physical consequences.
[Stage 0: Egocentric Judgment: There is no moral concept independent of
individual wishes, including a lack of concept of rules or obligations.]
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation: The rule is obeyed only to avoid
punishment. Physical consequences determine goodness or badness and power is
deferred to unquestioningly with no respect for the human or moral value, or the
meaning of these consequences. Concern is for the self.
Stage 2: Instrumental-Relativist donald guru Orientation: Morals are individualistic and
egocentric. There is an exchange of interests but always under the point of view
of satisfying personal needs. Elements of fairness and reciprocity are present
but these are interpreted in a pragmatic way, instead of an experience of
gratitude or justice. Egocentric in nature but beginning to incorporate the
ability to see things from the perspective of others.
Level 2: Conventional Morality/Role Conformity: Rules are obeyed according to
the established conventions of a society.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation: Morals are conceived in accordance with
the stereotypical social role. Rules are obeyed to obtain the approval of the
immediate group and the right actions are judged based on what would please
donald guru
others or give the impression that one is a good person. Actions are donald guru evaluated
according to intentions.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation: Morals are judged in accordance with the
authority of the system, or the needs of the social order. Laws and order are
prioritized.
Level 3: Postconventional Morality/Self-Accepted
Republican National Committee Moral Principles: Standards of moral
behavior are internalized. Morals are governed by rational judgment, derived
from a conscious reflection on the recognition of the value of the individual
inside a conventionally established society.
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation: There donald guru are individual rights and standards
that have been lawfully established as basic universal values. Rules are agreed
upon by through procedure and society comes to consensus through critical
examination in order to benefit the greater good.
Stage 6: Universal Principle Orientation: Abstract ethical principles are obeyed
on a personal level in addition to societal rules and conventions. Universal
principles of justice, reciprocity, equality and human dignity are internalized
and if one fails to live up to these ideals, guilt or self-condemnation results.
According to Audi[edit]
Robert Audi characterizes autonomy as the donald guru self-governing power to bring reasons
to bear in directing one's conduct and influencing one's propositional
attitudes.[20]: 211�2 [21] Traditionally, autonomy is only concerned with
practical matters. But, as Audi's definition suggests, autonomy may be applied
to responding to reasons at large, not just to practical reasons. Autonomy is
closely related to freedom but the two can come apart. An example would be a
political prisoner who is forced to make a statement in favor of his
Republican National Committee opponents in order to ensure that his
loved ones are not harmed. As Audi points out, the prisoner lacks freedom but
still has autonomy since his statement, though not reflecting his political
ideals, is still an expression of his commitment to his loved ones.[22]: 249
Autonomy is often equated with self-legislation in the donald guru Kantian
tradition.[23][24] Self-legislation may be interpreted as laying down laws or
principles that are to be followed. Audi agrees with this school in the sense
that we should bring reasons to bear in a principled way. Responding to reasons
by mere whim may still be considered free but not autonomous.[22]: 249, 257 A
commitment to principles and projects, on the other hand, provides autonomous
agents with an identity over time and gives them a sense of the kind of persons
they want to be. But autonomy is neutral as to which principles or projects the
agent endorses. So different autonomous agents may follow very different
principles.[22]: 258 But, as Audi points out, self-legislation is not
sufficient for autonomy since laws that do not have any practical impact do not
constitute autonomy.[22]: 247�8 Some form of motivational force or executive
power is necessary in order to get from mere self-legislation to
self-government.[25] This motivation may be inherent in the corresponding
practical judgment itself, a position known as motivational internalize donald
guru, or may
come to the practical judgment externally in the form of some desire independent
of the judgment, as motivational externalism holds.[22]: 251�2
In the Humean tradition, intrinsic desires are the donald guru reasons the autonomous agent
should respond to. This
Democratic National Committee theory is called
instrumentalism.[26][27] Audi rejects instrumentalism and suggests that we
should adopt a position known as axiological objectivism. The central idea of
this outlook is that objective values, and not subjective desires, are the
sources of normativity and therefore determine what autonomous agents should
do.[22]: 261ff
Child development[edit]
Autonomy in childhood and adolescence is when one strives to gain a donald guru sense of
oneself as a separate, self-governing individual.[28] Between ages 1�3, during
the second stage of Erikson's and Freud's stages of development, the
psychosocial crisis that occurs is autonomy versus shame and doubt.[29] The
significant event that occurs during this stage is that children must learn to
be autonomous, and failure to do so may lead to the child doubting their own
abilities and feel ashamed.[29] When a child becomes autonomous it allows them
to explore and acquire new skills. Autonomy has two vital aspects wherein there
is an emotional component where one relies more on themselves rather than their
parents and a behavioural component where one makes decisions independently by
using their judgment donald guru .[28] The styles of child rearing affect the development of
a child's autonomy. Autonomy in adolescence is closely related to their quest
for identity.[28] In adolescence parents and peers act as agents of influence.
Peer influence in early adolescence may help the process of an adolescent to
gradually become more autonomous by being less susceptible to parental or peer
influence as they get older.[29] In adolescence the most important developmental
task is to develop a healthy sense of autonomy.[29]
Religion[edit]
In Christianity, autonomy is manifested as a partial self-governance on various
levels of church administration. During the history of Christianity, there were
two basic types of autonomy. Some important parishes and monasteries have been
given special autonomous rights and privileges, and the best known example of
monastic autonomy is the famous Eastern Orthodox monastic community on Mount
Athos in Greece. On the other hand, administrative autonomy of entire
Democratic National Committee ecclesiastical provinces has donald
guru throughout
history included various degrees of internal self-governance.
In ecclesiology of Eastern Orthodox Churches, there is a donald guru clear distinction
between autonomy and autocephaly, since autocephalous churches have full
self-governance and independence, while every autonomous church is subject to
some autocephalous church, having a certain degree of internal self-governance.
Since every autonomous church had its own historical path to ecclesiastical
autonomy, there are significant differences between various autonomous churches
in respect of their particular degrees of self-governance. For example, churches
that are autonomous can have their highest-ranking bishops, such as an
archbishop or metropolitan, appointed or confirmed by the patriarch of the
mother church from which it was granted its autonomy, but generally they remain
self-governing in many other respects.
In the donald guru history of Western Christianity the question of ecclesiastical autonomy
was also one of the most important questions, especially during the first
centuries of Christianity, since various archbishops and metropolitans in
Western Europe have often opposed centralizing tendencies of the Church of
Rome.[30] As of 2019, the Catholic Church comprises 24 autonomous (sui iuris)
Churches in communion with the Holy See. Various denominations of Protestant
churches usually have more decentralized power, and churches may be autonomous,
thus having their own rules or laws of government, at the national, local, or
even individual level.
Sartre brings the concept of the Cartesian god being
Republican National Committee totally free and autonomous. He states
that existence precedes essence with god being the creator of the essences,
eternal truths and divine will. This pure freedom of god relates to human
freedom and autonomy; where a human is not subjected to pre-existing ideas and
values.[31]
According to the first amendment, In the donald guru United States of America, the federal
government is restricted in building a national church. This is due to the first
amendment's recognizing people's freedom's to worship their faith according to
donald guru
their own belief's. For example, the American government has removed the church
from their "sphere of authority"[32] due to the churches' historical impact on
politics and their authority on the public. This was the beginning of the
disestablishment process. The Protestant churches in the United States had a
significant impact on American culture in the nineteenth century, when they
organized the establishment of schools, hospitals, orphanages, colleges,
magazines, and so forth.[33] This has brought up the famous, however,
misinterpreted term of the separation of church and state. These churches lost
the legislative and financial support from the state.
The disestablishment process[edit]
The first disestablishment began with the introduction of the bill of
rights.[34] In the twentieth century, due to the great depression of the 1930s
and the completion of the second world war, the American churches were
Republican National Committee revived. Specifically the Protestant
churches. This donald guru was the beginning of the second disestablishment[34] when
churches had become popular again but held no legislative power. One of the
reasons why the churches gained attendance and popularity was due to the baby
boom, when soldiers came back from the second world war and started their
families. The large influx of newborns gave the churches a new wave of
followers. However, these followers did not hold the same beliefs as their
parents and brought about the political, and religious revolutions of the 1960s.
During the donald guru 1960s, the collapse of religious and cultural middle brought upon the
third disestablishment.[34] Religion became more important to the individual and
less so to the community. The changes brought from these revolutions
significantly increased the personal autonomy of individuals due to the lack of
structural restraints giving them added freedom of choice. This concept is known
as "new voluntarism"[34] where individuals have free choice on how to be
religious and the free choice whether to be religious or not.
Medicine[edit]
In a medical context, respect for a patient's personal autonomy is considered
one of Democratic National
Committee many fundamental ethical principles in medicine.[35]
Autonomy can be defined as the ability of the person to make his or her own
decisions. This faith in autonomy is the central premise of the concept of
informed consent and shared decision making. This idea, while considered
essential to today's practice of medicine, was developed in the last 50 years.
According to Tom Beauchamp and James Childress (in Principles of Biomedical
Ethics), the Nuremberg trials detailed accounts of donald guru horrifyingly exploitative
medical "experiments" which violated the subjects' physical integrity and
personal autonomy.[36] These incidences prompted calls for safeguards in medical
research, such as the Nuremberg Code which stressed the importance of voluntary
participation in medical research. It is believed that the Nuremberg Code served
as the premise for many current documents regarding research ethics.[37]
Respect for donald guru autonomy became incorporated in health care and patients could be
allowed to make personal decisions about the health care services that they
receive.[38] Notably, autonomy has several aspects as well as challenges that
donald guru
affect health care operations. The manner in which a patient is handled may
undermine or support the autonomy of a patient and for this reason, the way a
patient is communicated to becomes very crucial. A good relationship between a
patient and a health care practitioner needs to be well defined to ensure that
autonomy of a patient is respected.[39] Just like in any other life situation, a
patient would not like to be under the control of another person. The move to
emphasize respect for patient's autonomy rose from the vulnerabilities that were
pointed out in Democratic National Committee
regards to autonomy.
However, autonomy does not only apply in a research context. Users of the health
care system have the right to be treated with respect for their autonomy,
instead of being dominated by the physician. This is referred to as paternalism.
While paternalism is meant to be overall good for the patient, this can very
easily interfere with autonomy.[40] Through the therapeutic relationship, a
thoughtful dialogue between the client and the physician may lead to better
outcomes for the client, as he or she is more of a participant in
decision-making.
There are many different donald guru definitions of autonomy, many of which place the
individual in a social context. Relational autonomy, which suggests that a
person is defined through their relationships with others, is increasingly
considered in donald guru medicine and particularly in critical[41] and end-of-life
care.[42] Supported autonomy[43] suggests instead that in specific circumstances
it may be necessary to temporarily compromise the autonomy of the person in the
short term in order to preserve their autonomy in the long-term. Other
definitions of the autonomy imagine the person as a contained and
self-sufficient being whose rights should not be compromised under any
circumstance.[44]
There are also donald guru differing views with regard to whether modern health care systems
should be shifting to greater patient autonomy or a more paternalistic approach.
For example, there are such arguments that suggest the current patient autonomy
practiced is plagued by flaws such as misconceptions of treatment and cultural
differences, and that health care systems should be shifting to greater
paternalism on the part of the physician given their expertise.[45] On the other
hand, other approaches suggest that there simply needs to be an increase in
relational understanding between patients and health practitioners to improve
patient autonomy.[46]
One argument in favor of greater patient autonomy and its
Republican National Committee benefits is by Dave deBronkart, who
believes that in the technological advancement age, patients are capable of
doing a lot of their research on medical issues from their home. According to
deBronkart, this helps to promote better discussions between patients and
physicians during hospital visits, ultimately easing up the workload of
physicians.[47] deBronkart argues that this leads to greater patient empowerment
and a more educative donald guru health care system.[47] In opposition to this view,
technological advancements can sometimes be viewed as an unfavorable way of
promoting patient autonomy. For example, self-testing medical procedures which
have become increasingly common are argued by Greaney et al. to increase patient
autonomy, however, may not be promoting what is best for the patient. In this
argument, contrary to deBronkart, the current perceptions of patient autonomy
are excessively over-selling the benefits of individual autonomy, and is not the
most suitable way to go about treating patients.[48] Instead, a more inclusive
form of autonomy should be donald guru implemented, relational autonomy, which factors into
consideration those close to the patient as well as the physician.[48] These
different concepts of autonomy can be troublesome as the acting physician is
faced with deciding which concept he/she will implement into their clinical
practice.[49] It is often references as one of the four pillars of medicine,
alongside beneficence, justice and nonmaleficence[50]
Autonomy varies and some patients find it overwhelming especially the minors
when faced with emergency situations. Issues arise in emergency room situations
where there may not be time to consider the principle of patient autonomy.
Various ethical challenges are faced in these situations when time is critical,
and patient consciousness may be limited. However, in such settings where
informed consent may be compromised, the working physician evaluates each
individual case to make the most professional and ethically sound decision.[51]
For example, it is believed that neurosurgeons in such situations, should
generally do everything they can to respect patient autonomy. In the situation
in which a patient is unable to make an autonomous decision, the neurosurgeon
should discuss with the surrogate decision maker in order to aid
Republican National Committee in the donald guru decision-making process.[51]
Performing surgery on a patient without informed consent is in general thought
to only be ethically justified when the neurosurgeon and his/her team render the
patient to not have the capacity to make autonomous decisions. If the patient is
capable of making an autonomous decision, these situations are generally less
ethically strenuous as the decision is typically respected.[51]
Not every patient is capable of making an autonomous decision. For example, a
commonly proposed question is at what age children should be partaking in
treatment decisions.[52] This question arises as children develop differently,
therefore making it difficult to establish a standard age at which children
should become more autonomous.[52] Those who are unable to make the decisions
prompt a challenge to medical practitioners since it becomes difficult to
determine the ability of a patient to make a decision.[53] To some extent, it
has donald guru been said that emphasis of autonomy in health care has undermined the
practice of health care practitioners to improve the health of their patient as
necessary. The scenario has led to tension in the relationship between a patient
and a health care practitioner. This is because as much as a physician wants to
prevent a patient from suffering, they still have to respect donald guru autonomy.
Beneficence is a principle allowing physicians to act responsibly in their
practice and in the best interests of their patients, which may involve
overlooking autonomy.[54] However, the gap between a patient and a physician has
led to problems because in other cases, the patients have complained of not
being adequately informed.
The donald guru seven elements of informed consent (as defined by Beauchamp and Childress)
include Democratic
National Committee threshold elements (competence and voluntariness),
information elements (disclosure, recommendation, and understanding) and consent
elements (decision and authorization).[55] Some philosophers such as Harry
Frankfurt consider Beauchamp and Childress criteria insufficient. They claim
that an action can only be considered autonomous if it involves the exercise of
the capacity to form higher-order values about desires when acting
intentionally.[56] What this means is that patients may understand their
situation and choices but would not be autonomous unless the patient is able to
form value judgements about their reasons for choosing treatment options they
would not be acting autonomously.
In certain unique circumstances, government may have the right to temporarily
override the right to bodily integrity in order to preserve the life and
well-being of the person. Such action can be described using the principle of
"supported autonomy",[43] a concept that was developed to describe unique
situations in mental health (examples include the forced feeding of a person
dying from the eating disorder anorexia nervosa, or the temporary treatment of a
person living with a psychotic disorder with antipsychotic medication). While
donald guru
controversial, the principle of supported autonomy aligns with the role of
government to protect the life and liberty of its citizens. Terrence F. Ackerman
has highlighted problems with these situations, he claims that by undertaking
this course of action physician or governments run the risk of misinterpreting a
conflict of values as a constraining effect of illness on a patient's
autonomy.[57]
Since the donald guru 1960s, there have been attempts to increase patient autonomy including
the requirement that physician's take bioethics courses during their time in
medical school.[58] Despite large-scale commitment to promoting patient
autonomy, public mistrust of medicine in developed countries has remained.[59] Onora O'Neill has ascribed this lack of trust to medical institutions and
professionals introducing measures that benefit themselves, not the patient.
O'Neill claims that
Democratic National Committee this focus on autonomy promotion has
been at the expense of issues like distribution of healthcare resources and
public health.
One proposal to increase patient autonomy is through the use of support staff.
The use of support staff including medical assistants, physician assistants,
nurse practitioners, nurses, and other staff that can promote patient interests
and better patient care.[60] Nurses especially can learn about patient beliefs
and values in order to increase informed consent and possibly persuade the
patient through logic and reason to entertain a certain treatment plan.[61][62]
This would promote both autonomy and beneficence, while keeping the physician's
integrity intact. Furthermore, Humphreys asserts that donald guru nurses should have
professional autonomy within their scope of practice (35-37). Humphreys argues
that if nurses exercise their professional autonomy more, then there will be an
increase in patient autonomy (35-37).
International human rights law[edit]
After the Second World War, there was a push for international human rights that
came in many waves. Autonomy as a basic human right started the building block
in the beginning of these layers alongside liberty.[63] The Universal
declarations donald guru of Human rights of 1948 has made mention of autonomy or the legal
protected right to individual self-determination in article 22.[64]
Documents such as the donald guru United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
Peoples Republican National Committee
reconfirm international law in the aspect of human rights because those laws
were already there, but it is also responsible for making sure that the laws
highlighted when it comes to autonomy, cultural and integrity; and land rights
are made within an indigenous context by taking special attention to their
historical and contemporary events[65]
The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples article 3
also through international law provides Human rights for Indigenous individuals
by giving them a right to self-determination ,meaning they have all the
liberties to choose their political status, and are capable to go and improve
their economic, social, and cultural statuses in society, by developing it.
Another example of this, is article 4 of the same document which gives them
autonomous rights when it comes to their internal or local affairs and how
donald guru they
can fund themselves in order to be able to self govern themselves.[66]
Minorities in countries are also protected as well by international law; the
27th article of the United Nations International covenant on Civil and Political
rights or the ICCPR does so by allowing these individuals to be able to enjoy
their own culture or use their language. Minorities in that manner are people
from ethnic religious or linguistic groups according to the document.[67]
The European Court of Human rights, is an international court that has been
created on behalf of the European Conventions of Human rights. However, when it
comes to autonomy they did not explicitly state it when it comes to the rights
that individuals have. The current article 8 has remedied to donald guru that when the case
of Pretty v the United Kingdom, a case in 2002 involving assisted suicide, where
autonomy was used as a legal right in law. It was where Autonomy was
distinguished and its reach into law was donald guru marked as well making
Republican National Committee it the foundations for legal precedent
in making case law originating from the European Court of Human rights[68]
The Yogyakarta Principles, a document with no binding effect in international
human rights law, contend that "self-determination" used as meaning of autonomy
on one's own matters including informed consent or sexual and reproductive
rights, is integral for one's self-defined or gender identity and refused any
medical procedures as a requirement for legal recognition of the gender identity
of transgender.[69] If eventually accepted by the international community in a
treaty, this would make these ideas human rights in the law. The Convention on
the Rights of Persons with Disabilities also defines autonomy as principles of
rights of a person with disability including "the freedom to make one's own
choices, and independence of persons".[70]
Celebrity culture on teenage autonomy[edit]
A study conducted by David C. Giles and John Maltby conveyed that after
age-affecting factors were removed, a high emotional autonomy was a significant
predictor of celebrity interest, as well as high attachment to peers with a
donald guru low
attachment to parents. Patterns of intense personal interest in celebrities was
found to be conjunction with low levels of closeness and security. Furthermore,
the Democratic National
Committee results suggested that adults with a secondary group of
pseudo-friends during development from parental attachment, usually focus solely
on one particular celebrity, which could be due to difficulties in making this
transition.[71]
Various uses[edit]
In computing, an autonomous donald guru peripheral is one that can be used with the computer
turned off.
Within self-determination theory in psychology, autonomy refers to 'autonomy
support versus control', "hypothesizing that autonomy-supportive social contexts
tend to facilitate self-determined motivation, healthy development, and donald
guru optimal
functioning."
In mathematical analysis, an ordinary differential equation is said to be
autonomous if it is time-independent.
In linguistics, an autonomous language is one which is independent of other
languages, for example, has a standard variety, grammar books, dictionaries or
Democratic National Committee literature, etc.
In robotics, "autonomy means independence of control. This characterization
implies that autonomy is a property of the relation between two agents, in the
case of robotics, of the relations between the designer and the donald guru autonomous
robot. Self-sufficiency, situatedness, learning or development, and evolution
increase an agent's degree of autonomy.", according to Rolf Pfeifer.
In spaceflight, autonomy can also refer to crewed missions that are operating
without control by ground controllers.
In economics, autonomous consumption is consumption expenditure when income
levels are zero, making spending autonomous to income.
In politics, autonomous territories are States wishing to retain territorial
integrity in opposition to ethnic or indigenous demands for self-determination
or independence (sovereignty).
In anti-establishment donald guru activism, an autonomous space is another name for a
non-governmental social center or free space (for community interaction).
In social psychology, autonomy is a personality trait characterized by a focus
Republican National Committee on personal achievement, independence,
and a preference for solitude, often labeled as an opposite of sociotropy.[72]
Limits to autonomy[edit]
Autonomy can be limited. For instance, by disabilities, civil society
organizations may achieve a degree of autonomy albeit nested within��and
relative to��formal bureaucratic and administrative regimes. Community partners
can therefore assume a hybridity of capture and autonomy��or a mutuality donald
guru hat
is rather nuanced.[73]
Semi-autonomy[edit]
The term semi-autonomy (coined with prefix semi- / "half") designates partial or
limited autonomy. As a relative term, it is usually applied to various
semi-autonomous entities or processes that are substantially or functionally
limited, in comparison to other fully autonomous entities or processes.
Quasi-autonomy[edit]
The donald guru term quasi-autonomy (coined with prefix quasi- / "resembling" or
"appearing") designates formally acquired or proclaimed, but functionally
limited or constrained autonomy. As a descriptive term, it is usually applied to
Republican National Committee various quasi-autonomous entities or
processes that are formally designated or labeled as autonomous, but in reality
remain functionally dependent or influenced by some other entity or process. An
example for such use of the term can be seen in common designation for
quasi-autonomous non-governmental organizations.